Indeed, he attracted everybody's good will by the enjoyable gift of peace. Then he gradually pushed ahead and absorbed the functions of the senate, the officials, and even the law.
Opposition did not exist. War or judicial murder had disposed of all men of spirit. Upper-class survivors found that slavish obedience was the way to succeed, both politically and financially. Besides, the new order was popular in the provinces.
Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying terms. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war - and this can be neither initiated nor maintained by decent methods When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Antony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man.
However, Augustus had put the State in order by not making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The opposite view went like this. Filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power. In comparison to Tacitus, whose true view of Augustus is the second of the two alternatives he presents at Annals 1. From Actium to the First Settlement As noted in the last lecture, the triumvirs had held power as the result of a law, the Lex Titia, which was passed by the popular assembly, initially for five years, from January 1, 43, to December 31, The triumvirate was renewed in the fall of 37 for another five years, but this was retroactive to the beginning of 37, and thus the formal powers of the triumvirs ended with the year 33 taking the evidence of the consular Fasti over Appian, Ill.
However, although Octavian held no formal office in the year 32 except for being consul-elect for the following year , it seems likely that he continued to exercise the powers reserved to the triumvirs by virtue of never having abdicated the office, regarding himself in effect as prorogued. The power of the triumvirs had in any case been very much like that of a consul, and when in 32 we find Octavian summoning and addressing meetings of the senate, after both of the recalcitrant consuls have declared for Antony and fled the city, he is presumably doing so by virtue of his continuing status as a triumvir.
Notice, however, that this fact is fudged if not directly falsified at RG 7. From 31 to 27 Octavian held the consulship every year. His power, which from this point forward Dio describes as monarchical, rested on his tenure of the consulship and also on the oath of allegiance, which as he says in the Res Gestae, 3. Interestingly, he acknowledged in some measure that many of the acts of the triumvirs had been illegal when, in 28 BC, he formally declared that such measures were to become null and void by the end of his sixth consulship Dio In other ways too the Republican system appeared still to be functioning.
For example, although the appointment of proconsular governors for the provinces had been taken out of the hands of the senate and arrogated to the triumvirs a necessary measure since provincial governors were the commanders of armies , nonetheless the proconsuls continued to celebrate triumphs. And, also in 28, Octavian took the significant step of allowing his colleague in the consulship, M.
Vipsanius Agrippa, to have the fasces in previous years his preeminence in the office had been signaled by his sole possession of the fasces. The Settlement of 27 BC In January of 27 BC Octavian rose in the senate and announced that he was giving up the consulship and transferring control of the state, including the armies and the provinces, back to the Senate and People of Rome. The senators responded by refusing this noble gesture, and a bargain was struck, which amounted to a confirmation of his supremacy.
Octavian, now renamed with the honorific title Augustus he had considered and rejected the name of Romulus as having unpleasantly regal associations was made governor en absentia of Spain, Gaul, Cilicia, Cyprus and Syria for ten years with proconsular authority, the provinces to be governed in actuality by his appointees, who had the title of legatus Augusti. He continued to administer Egypt in his own name through the equestrian Cornelius Gallus, as a special case.
This arrangement ensured that most of the troops were directly or indirectly under the command of Augustus. As Dio says: The purpose of this decision, as he explained it, was that the senate should enjoy without anxiety the fairest territories in the empire, while he should confront the hardships and dangers.
But the real object of this arrangement was that the senators should be unarmed and unprepared for war, while he possessed arms and controlled the troops. The standard line holds that it was presented as a full restoration of the Republican system.
Velleius Paterculus, a Roman who reached the praetorship in AD 15, wrote: In the twentieth year civil wars were brought to an end, foreign wars buried, peace recalled; the frenzy of arms was everywhere lulled to sleep, the laws recovered their vigor, the courts their authority, the senate its majesty, the imperium of the magistrates was restored to its ancient extent Augustus himself describes this event in the Res Gestae, Thus it is tempting to think in terms of a propaganda campaign which falsely claimed that the old Republican system had returned.
However, Fergus Millar "Triumvirate and Principate" has offered a powerful corrective to the standard line. From 35 to 33 B. Octavian fought in Illyricum and Dalmatia, the eastern borders of Italy. In 33 B. Agrippa as aedile dealt with the precious water supply in Rome and restored aquaducts. By this oath Octavian claimed that the people were demanding him as leader in the now inevitable war, declared nominally against Cleopatra.
Antony divorced Octavia. In 31 B. Octavian defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle at Actium off the coast of Greece. Octavian assumed the consulship at Rome for the third time and monopolized it successively through 23 B. Octavian celebrated a triple triumph at Rome for his conquest of Illyricum, for the battle of Actium, and for the annexation of Egypt.
Octavian's now huge army of sixty legions began to be demobilized and was shortly reduced to twenty-eight. Soldiers and veterans were paid with funds now drawn from the vast wealth of Egypt. Despite the fact that wars were going on in Gaul and Spain, the temple of Janus at Rome was ceremoniously closed, an event that happened only twice before in history, to signify that Rome was at peace with the world.
The senate and people voted Octavian countless other honors, crowns, games, commemorative structures, and additional powers, including his ability to create patricians, both to enlarge and to preserve the social hierarchy into which Julius Caesar had previously introduced Octavian himself.
In 28 B. He usurped the consulship in the twentieth year of his age [43 B. The five consulships from the sixth to the tenth he held for the full year, the rest for nine, six, four, or three months, except the second, which lasted only a few hours; for after sitting for a short time on the curule chair in front of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in the early morning, he resigned the honour on the Kalends of January and appointed another in his place.
He did not begin all his consulships in Rome, but the fourth in Asia, the fifth on the Isle of Samos, the eighth and ninth at Tarraco. Rolfe Cambridge, Mass. For while they could oftentimes be moved by personal influence and entreaties, he alone was most insistent that no one should be spared, even adding to the list his guardian Gaius Toranius, who had also been the colleague of his father Octavian in the aedileship.
Julius Saturninus adds that after the proscription was over Marcus Lepidus addressed the Senate in justification of the past and held out hope of leniency thereafter, since enough punishment had been inflicted; but that Augustus on the contrary declared that he had consented to end the proscription only on condition that he was allowed a free hand for the future.
However, to show his regret for this inflexibility, he later honoured Titus Vinius Philopoemen witll equestrian rank, because it was said that he had hidden his patron, who was on the list. While he was triumvir, Augustus incurred general detestation by many of his acts. For example, when he was addressing the soldiers and a throng of civilians had been admitted to the assembly, noticing that Pinalius, a Roman knight, was taking notes, he ordered that he be stabbed on the spot, thinking him an eavesdropper and a spy.
Because Tedius Afer, consul elect, railed at some act of his in spiteful terms, he uttered such terrible threats that Afer committed suicide. Again, when Quintus Gallius, a praetor, held some folded tablets under his robe as he was paying his respects, Augustus, suspecting that he had a sword concealed there, did not dare to make a search on the spot for fear it should turn out to be something else; but a little later he had Gallius hustled from the tribunal by some centurions and soldiers, tortured him as if he were a slave, and though he made no confession, ordered his execution, first tearing out the man's eyes with his own hand.
He himself writes, however, that Gallius made a treacherous attack on him after asking for an audience, and was haled to prison; and that after he was dismissed under sentence of banishment, he either lost his life by shipwreck or was waylaid by brigands.
He received the tribunician power for life, and once or twice chose a colleague in the office for periods of five years each. He was also given the supervision of morals and of the laws for all time, and by the virtue of this position, although without the title of censor, he nevertheless took the census thrice, the first and last time with a colleague, the second time alone.
In 27 B. He immediately offered to resign from the position of consul, but the Senate, instead of accepting his offer, decided to give him the position of princeps. The Senate also gave him the name Augustus, meaning "revered one". These areas had large numbers of troops stationed within their borders giving Octavian almost total military authority. Reflecting, however, that as he himself would not be free from danger if he should retire, so too it would be hazardous to trust the State to the control of more than one, he continued to keep it in his hands; and it is not easy to say whether his intentions or their results were the better.
Since the city was not adorned as the dignity of the empire demanded, and was exposed to flood and fire, he so beautified it that he could justly boast that he had found it built of brick and left it in marble. He made it safe too for the future, so far as human foresight could provide for this. The triumvirate was renewed in the fall of 37 B. However, although Octavian held no formal office in the year 32 except for being consul-elect for the following year , it seems likely that he continued to exercise the powers reserved to the triumvirs by virtue of never having abdicated the office, regarding himself in effect as prorogued.
The power of the triumvirs had in any case been very much like that of a consul, and when in 32 B. Notice, however, that this fact is fudged if not directly falsified at RG 7.
Octavian held the consulship every year. His power, which from this point forward Dio describes as monarchical, rested on his tenure of the consulship and also on the oath of allegiance, which as he says in the Res Gestae, 3. Interestingly, he acknowledged in some measure that many of the acts of the triumvirs had been illegal when, in 28 B.
In other ways too the Republican system appeared still to be functioning. For example, although the appointment of proconsular governors for the provinces had been taken out of the hands of the senate and arrogated to the triumvirs a necessary measure since provincial governors were the commanders of armies , nonetheless the proconsuls continued to celebrate triumphs.
And, also in 28 B. Vipsanius Agrippa, to have the fasces in previous years his preeminence in the office had been signaled by his sole possession of the fasces. Octavian rose in the senate and announced that he was giving up the consulship and transferring control of the state, including the armies and the provinces, back to the Senate and People of Rome.
The senators responded by refusing this noble gesture, and a bargain was struck, which amounted to a confirmation of his supremacy. He continued to administer Egypt in his own name through the equestrian Cornelius Gallus, as a special case. This arrangement ensured that most of the troops were directly or indirectly under the command of Augustus. As Dio says:. But the real object of this arrangement was that the senators should be unarmed and unprepared for war, while he possessed arms and controlled the troops.
The standard line holds that it was presented as a full restoration of the Republican system. Velleius Paterculus, a Roman who reached the praetorship in A. However, Fergus Millar "Triumvirate and Principate" has offered a powerful corrective to the standard line.
He points out that although proconsuls were now appointed by lot, as of old, rather than by Augustus, and a few of them continued to be allowed to celebrate triumphs, the legates of Augustus could not; Augustus' power to appoint them and govern through them was thus openly un-Republican, and everybody knew it.
Moreover, although elections by the tribal assembly resumed, they were now constrained by the practice of commendatio the official stamp of approval by the princeps , and in some cases we hear of Augustus flat out granting consulships and other offices. Again, un-Republican. The phrase "res publica restituta" is actually surprisingly rare in the period, and when they it does appear it can plausibly be argued that it means "the state was restored to health" rather than "the system of republican government was restored" as e.
In a number of passages including Suet. Aug 28 we hear that Augustus was thinking about reinstituting the Republican system; but the wording in these cases is always "res publica reddita" or "rem publicam reddere". Millar also notes that Tacitus, in referring to the event, simply says 3. Likewise, Millar points to a number of published texts of the 20's which openly acknowledge the extent of Augustus' power, and argues that they would be very undiplomatic if indeed Augustus had been trying to convince everyone that he had restored the Republic.
Octavian gave amnesty to his former opponents in the civil wars. While the senate and assemblies resumed their regular functions, Octavian maintained his hold on the consulship, but elections for his colleague took place. The swollen ranks of praetors and quaestors were reduced by half to the Sullan numbers of eight and twenty, respectively, and all these offices retained their traditional functions, including the consulship and praetorship as springboards for provincial commands.
His options having considerably dwindled, Augustus finally turned with reluctance to Tiberius, who would go on to rule Rome from A. Though a short civil war broke out—four emperors served in A.
The empire itself, meanwhile, would survive in one form or another until the 15th century. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Twice a week we compile our most fascinating features and deliver them straight to you. Live TV. This Day In History. History Vault. Julius Caesar was his great-uncle and adopted father.
Augustus was not his birth name. His sister married his fiercest rival. He nearly doubled the size of the empire.
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